Nanoporous gold nanoparticles as high-payload molecular cargos, photothermal/photodynamic therapeutic agents, and ultrahigh surface-to-volume plasmonic sensors

ABSTRACT

A nanoporous gold disk (NPGD) as a novel surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) substrate. NPGD has SERS enhancement factor similar to that of gold nanoshells, but allows, for example, at least three times more benzenethiol molecules to be attached to its surface due to large surface-to-volume ratio. The high capacity enables the rapid detection of attomole-level benzenethiol molecules with relatively high detector temperatures. Additionally, a fabrication process to make NPGD with controlled size and highly reproducible SERS activities.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of and claims priority to U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/796,201 filed Mar. 12, 2013, which claimspriority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/609,451 filedMar. 12, 2012, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference forall purposes.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates generally to nanoporous materials. Morespecifically, this disclosure relates to nanoporous gold nanoparticles(NPGNs).

BACKGROUND

A single living cell is a dynamic system constantly sensing and reactingto external stimuli, and can already be considered as a biologicalnetwork itself. As the hierarchy upgrades, many cells can form a morecomplex biological network and demonstrate communication and collectivebehavior. To unravel the biological network even at the single celllevel is still challenging because of its complexity and is a criticalsubject in fields such as system biology. One of the most importanttricks in all experimental science is to effectively vary only one thingat a time. As such, the spatial and temporal precision of the deliveryof controlled changes is critical.

Recently, we have witnessed a paradigm shift from extracellular controlof environmental stimuli to intracellular control of the actual internalconnections themselves, which can potentially provide new insights ofthe living cellular machinery. As an obvious example, an externalstimulus will most likely trigger a cascade of cell signaling viavarious pathways before its effect is actually received by the intendedintracellular party. The response of interest may be completely maskedor misinterpreted due to signal loss, attenuation or distortion withinthe long string of signaling cascade. Therefore, intracellulartechniques have the potential to deliver the controlled effectors withmuch improved spatial, temporal and even molecular precision.

Recent advances in nanoplasmonic technology have enabled new tools forlight-gated drug delivery, photothermal therapy, DNA release, inducingprotein aggregates, and nanometer scale direct interfacing withintracellular processes using oligonucleotides. A distinct advantage ofgold nanoparticle-based approaches compared to lysosome vesicle or othermetals is the much better control in coating, or functionalizing, themwith thiolated ligands directly or through linker molecules, and itschemical inertness. Colloidal gold nanosphere has been first used as aphotothermal agent for therapies and light-gated release of surfacecoated molecules. With plasmon resonance near 540 nm, in vivoapplications were limited however by the strong scattering andabsorption of skin, tissue, and hemoglobin at this wavelength. As aresult, various colloidal gold nanoparticles of other geometry have beendeveloped, e.g., nanoshell, nanorod, and nanocage, with two primarygoals: shifting the resonance into the near-infrared transmission windowand increasing the nanoparticle's cargo capacity.

Plasmonic nanoparticles are generally characterized by scanning electronmicrocopy or dynamic light scattering for size distribution, absorptionspectroscopy for both size and plasmonic resonance, andsurface-sensitive techniques such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy(SERS) using surface adsorbate or thiolated hydrocarbon as markers.Among these, SERS provides label-free adsorbate identification with thehighest nanoparticle-molecule distance sensitivity because only themolecules within a few nanometers of the gold surface can be enhanced.In addition, SERS is arguably the most robust and sensitive techniquefor real biological applications because it is a background-freemeasurement assuming the photoluminescence from other interferents isnegligible.

Over the past decade, many types of colloidal nanoparticles of variousshapes have been developed as shown and described below. All theexisting nanoparticles share the same feature, that is, they aresolid-core, with nanocage as the only exception, which features an emptyvoid inside a “porous” box. Therefore, only a small fraction, i.e., themolecules absorbed on nanocage walls, could be plasmonically enhanced,rendering single nanocage undetectable by SERS.

SUMMARY

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy has been widely used forhigh-sensitivity molecular detection and identification. However, as formost surface sensors, the performance of a SERS sensor is usuallycontrolled by the delivery and binding of molecular analytes to thesensing surface. To address this challenge, we disclose a novelmonolithic plasmonic nanofluidic architecture that exploits a3-dimensional sensing volume inside nanoporous gold (NPG), as shown inFIG. 1A. Unlike conventional sensors that only utilize an approximatelyflat sensing surface, our approach features an ultrahighsurface-to-volume ratio for collecting a large number of moleculesinside the sensing volume that is matched to the optical focal volume.Further, once entering the sensing volume, these molecules are immersedin a plasmonic field that retains them and enables SERS acquisition overa prolonged period of time. The analytes can be released from thesensing volume after being measured by simply turning off the laser, andnew analytes can be flowed in, trapped by the plasmonic field, andmeasured in a batch fashion, thereby enabling continuous monitoring. Weenvision that this approach will provide a powerful trapping mechanismto complement current surface binding strategies based on chemical orbiochemical functionalization of the sensor surface. Moreover, thisapproach can become a versatile label- and surfacefunctionalization-free technique for highly multiplexed sensing.Further, the proposed platform provides a unique opportunity tosimultaneously exploit and study the synergy between nanofluidicconfinement, plasmonic trapping and field enhancement.

We disclose a novel class of nanoparticie, dubbed nanoporous goldnanoparticle (NPGN). As shown the figures and described below, NPGNsfeature a fine porous network with pore size ˜20 nm in some embodimentsthroughout its entire volume, which is not seen in any existing goldnanoparticles including solid- or hollow-core nanosphere, nanorod,nanoshell, nanocrescent, and nanocage. The external shape of our firstNPGN is similar to a nanodisk with a diameter of ˜400-500 nm and athickness of ˜75 nm. Both the diameter and thickness can be easily tunedby slightly changing fabrication parameters. The high porosity isintriguing and critically important in several aspects.

First, the increased surface area would permit NPGN to carry a muchhigher payload of surface adsorbates. This feature has significantimplication in nanoparticle-based molecular cargo for the delivery ofdrugs, proteins, DNA and RNA into cells. It has a significant potentialin improving current cancer treatment via chemotherapy, radiationtherapy, or the combination of the two. Second, the NPGN is“semitransparent” due to its porous nature. Thus, the internal surfaceadsorbates may in some cases be optically measured. In other words, theamount of internal payload can be quantified via optical methods. Third,with proper surface linkage, the entire 3-dimensional internal volumecan be “filled” and thus payload may be further increased without payingthe price of size increase. Fourth, due to the fine pore structures, themajority of the “filler” or surface adsorbate molecules are within theplasmonic field or “hot spots.” We believe this is the fundamentalmechanism giving rise to our recently observed intense Raman scatteringfrom a benzenethiol self-assembled monolayer (SAM) coating. A heuristicargument similar to that in the discovery of SERS is that the increaseof surface area (˜10-30×) cannot account for the ˜4-5 orders ofmagnitude increase in SERS intensity by comparing solid-core goldnanodisk and NPGN. The porous nature must have modified thenanoplasmonic behavior dramatically.

Another heuristic explanation can be applied to the red-shifted plasmonresonance peak. Colloidal gold nanosphere peaks at ˜540 nm and isrelatively insensitive to size. Red-shifted plasmonic peak is known tobe present in solid-core gold nanodisk (peak ˜700 nm) and un-patterned,i.e., continuous, NPG thin film (peak ˜650 nm). It appears that thecombination of NPGN's shape and the fine porous network has furtherred-shifted the plasmonic peak into the near-infrared regime, at leastto 785 nm employed in our experiments. This further red-shift provides astrong indication of synergistic coupling between external shape of ananoparticle and its internal nanostructures.

Fifth, the highly plasmonic nature of NPGN suggests that it is a goodphotothermal agent in the near-infrared, which is critical for deeptissue penetration in biomedical applications. Thus, the embeddedmolecules can be released by light activation. Sixth, the plasmonicheating on NPGN can become an effective light-gated delivery strategy ofthe internalized molecules at the cellular, tissue, organ and whole bodylevel.

Although NPGN has so many fascinating properties and potentials, it isnot well understood. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first topattern sub-100 nm thick continuous NPG film into 400-500 nm diameterNPGN.

We have established a NPGN fabrication process. Starting with acontinuous Au/Ag alloy film and followed by nanosphere lithography,etching and nitric acid leaching, we have repeatedly fabricated NPGNwith consistent size and SERS resulting from a benzenethiolself-assembled monolayer coating throughout the NPGN's external andinternal surfaces. In addition to ready-to-use dark-field microscope(DFM), localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) imager and a sharedscanning electron microscope (SEM) we have developed two critical Ramaninstruments for NPGN characterization. A high-throughput line-scan Ramanmapping system has been employed to characterize dense NPGN units overlarge area. The second Raman imager enables simultaneous random-accessof 50 1-micron² spots within a 100×100 micron² sample area and has beenemployed to perform spatially-agile sampling of many individual NPGNunits simultaneously. A novel SERS nanoparticle tracking and monitoringsystem enables the tracking, monitoring and heating of multipleselective NPGN floating in micro system such as biological cells, acritical milestone. This disclosure deepens our fundamentalunderstanding of this new nanoplasmonic material and to guide futureimplementation of NPGN for modulation and measurement in biologicalnetworks.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The features, nature, and advantages of the disclosed subject matterwill become more apparent from the detailed description set forth belowwhen taken in conjunction with the drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1A shows an Au nanofluidic architecture;

FIG. 1B shows 300 nm thick NPG thin film;

FIG. 1C shows patterned NPGD with diameter 500 nm and thickness 75 nm;

FIG. 1D shows benzenethiol SERS from NPGD with SERS EF ˜10⁸⁻⁹;

FIG. 2A shows SEM image of Au nanoparticles;

FIG. 2B shows SEM image of a nanotip;

FIG. 2C shows SEM images of nanostructured SERS substrates;

FIG. 3A shows SEM image of Ag nanoparticle decorated anodized alumina;

FIG. 3B shows SEM image of Ag-coated porous silicon;

FIG. 3C shows SEM images of immobilized Au nanoparticles;

FIG. 3D shows SEM image of a nanorod array;

FIG. 4A shows a SEM image of sputtered gold nanodots;

FIG. 4B shows a large-area, high-resolution SERS map of benzenethiolself-assembled monolayer (SAM);

FIG. 4C shows a benzenethiol SERS spectrum;

FIG. 5A shows SERS integrated with microfluidics;

FIG. 5B shows SERS integrated with microfluidics;

FIG. 5C shows SERS integrated with microfluidics;

FIG. 5D shows SERS integrated with nanofluidics;

FIG. 5E shows SERS integrated with nanofluidics;

FIG. 5F shows SERS integrated with nanofluidics;

FIG. 6A shows LSPR spectrum vs. pore size in NPG films;

FIG. 6B shows LSPR peak position vs. pore size in NPG films;

FIG. 6C shows SEM of mechanically wrinkled NPG films;

FIG. 6D shows mechanically densified NPG film;

FIG. 7A shows a 3-D model for FDTD analysis;

FIG. 7B shows a refractive index profile of Au disk with ten 10 nmthrough-holes;

FIG. 8A shows a fabrication process flow for NPG or NPGD plasmonicnanofluidics;

FIG. 8B shows a fabrication process flow for NPG or NPGD plasmonicnanofluidics;

FIG. 8C shows a fabrication process flow for NPG or NPGD plasmonicnanofluidics;

FIG. 8D shows a microfluidic enclosure for sample delivery;

FIG. 9A shows E-field distribution near a solid Au disk;

FIG. 9B shows a plasmon resonance peak for Au and Ag disks;

FIG. 10 shows FDTD results from three Au disks with ten 10-nmthrough-holes;

FIG. 11A shows a SEM image of monolithic NPG thin films on a siliconsubstrate

FIG. 11B shows a SEM image of a NPG thin films lift off from thesubstrate to reveal cross-section;

FIG. 12A shows a SEM image of patterned NPGD with PS beads on top;

FIG. 12B shows a SEM image of patterned NPGD with PS beads removed;

FIG. 13A shows normalized benzenethiol SAM SERS from nanoshell, NPGD andNPG;

FIG. 13B shows SERS from different thiolated ligands;

FIG. 14A shows a comparison of sparse and dense NPGD samples, withbright-field white light images;

FIG. 14B shows a comparison of sparse and dense NPGD samples, with SERSmap;

FIG. 14C shows a comparison of sparse and dense NPGD samples, with SERSspectra from five different locations;

FIG. 14D shows a comparison of sparse and dense NPGD samples, withbright-field white light images;

FIG. 14E shows a comparison of sparse and dense NPGD samples, with SERSmap;

FIG. 14F shows a comparison of sparse and dense NPGD samples, with SERSspectra from five different locations;

FIG. 15A shows etched Au/Ag alloy disks on Au bases;

FIG. 15B shows an enlarged image of NPGD sides to show visible boundarybetween Au/Ag alloy and the Au base;

FIG. 15C shows a top view of NPGD;

FIG. 15D shows unpatterned NPG thin film;

FIG. 16A shows normalized SERS from NPGD, unpatterned NPG thin films,and Au@SiO₂ nanoshells;

FIG. 16B shows SERS from a single NPGD at various detector temperatures;

FIG. 17A shows a released NPGN;

FIG. 17B shows high-density NPGN prior to release with polystyrene beadsin place;

FIG. 17C shows released NPGN with polystyrene still attached;

FIG. 18A shows an FDTD electric field distribution;

FIG. 18B shows extinction spectra for gold and silver;

FIG. 18C shows a continuous NPG film;

FIG. 18D shows NPGN;

FIG. 18E shows a SERS map vs. bright-field;

FIG. 19A shows a 300 nm thick NPG film;

FIG. 19B shows un-released NPGNs;

FIG. 20A shows a SERS map of un-released NPGN using benzenethiol Ramanpeak @ 1575 cm⁻¹;

FIG. 20B shows benzenethiol SERS;

FIG. 20C shows ABL patterned photoresist;

FIG. 21A shows 11-point random access SERS imaging of nanoshells coatedwith benzenethiol SAM;

FIG. 21B shows SERS of nanoshells coated with benzenethiol SAM;

FIG. 22A shows an adaptive SERS based tracking scheme, with motionsensor configuration, tracking experiments;

FIG. 22B shows an adaptive SERS based tracking scheme, with motionsensor configuration, tracking experiments;

FIG. 22C shows an adaptive SERS based tracking scheme, with motionsensor configuration, tracking experiments;

FIG. 22D shows SERS intensity;

FIG. 22E shows single vs. dimer nanoshells benzenethiol SERS;

FIG. 23A shows ABL resist pattern of 60nm circles;

FIG. 23B shows 11-spot SERS tracking;

FIG. 23C shows 50-spot Si Raman; and

FIGS. 24A-24L show various types of plasmon-resonant nanoparticles: FIG.24A shows spheres; FIG. 24B shows rods; FIG. 24C shows bipyramids; FIG.24D shows rods @ Ag shells; FIG. 24E shows rice; FIG. 24F shows shells;FIG. 24G shows bowls; FIG. 24H shows spiky shells; FIG. 24I showsnanostars, tetrahedra, octahedra, and cuboctahedra; FIG. 24J shows cube;FIG. 24K shows cages; and FIG. 24L shows crescents.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Although the present disclosure is described with reference to specificembodiments, one skilled in the art could apply the principles discussedherein to other areas and/or embodiments without undue experimentation.

Reference will now be made in detail to certain embodiments of thedisclosure, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanyingdrawings.

The monolithic plasmonic nanofluidics of this disclosure features anultra-fine network of Au nanofluidics with channel width ˜5-15 nm. Themolecular analyte can be plasmonically trapped, its SERS measured, andthen released. In this implementation, we exploit the fascinatingproperties of unpatterned and patterned nanoporous gold as the3-dimensional sensing volume. As shown in FIG. 1B, 300 nm thick NPG thinfilms can be fabricated by free corrosion of Ag from Au/Ag alloy thinfilms, forming tunable nanoporous structures throughout the film.Depending on the pore size and density, the effective surface area canbe increased by ˜5-80 fold compared to a flat gold surface. NPG is knownto be plasmonic with a broad resonance peak near 600 nm. Thus, we andothers have obtained SERS enhancement factor (EF) ˜106 using 785 nmlaser excitation. Beyond continuous NPG thin films, we have pioneeredpatterning NPG into discrete sub-micron disks using microfabricationtechniques. We have observed 2-3 orders of magnitude increase of SERSfrom NPG disks (NPGD) with diameter 500 nm and thickness -75 nm shown inFIG. 1C, over and above the enhancement factors for unpatterned NPG. Abenzenethiol self-assembled monolayer was employed as the marker and itsSERS is shown in FIG. 1D using 785 nm laser excitation. The SERSenhancement factor is estimated to be ˜10⁸⁻⁹ after taking the increasedsurface area into account. Due to the high porosity, NPG/NPGD at thisthickness is semi-transparent, enabling excitation laser light topenetrate through. In addition, NPGD is designed to be about the samesize as a highly focused laser spot (full width half maximum ˜500 nm);therefore, all the benzenethiol molecules assembled on the disk'ssurface and in the nanoporous network throughout its volume contributeto the observed SERS.

There are three basic approaches in SERS: colloidal nanoparticles ofvarious shapes, probe-based nanotips, and nanostructured substrates. Thecolloids are usually made by solution processes, the tips of metallizedatomic force microscope (AFM) tips, and the nanostructured substrate bylithographic or self-assembly methods.

For the colloidal nanoparticle approach (FIG. 2A), the nanoparticlesusually are functionalized to accumulate at or bind to a specific targetthrough biochemical processes such as antibody-antigen conjugation orcoated with thiol or amine terminated reporters or linkers. It isgenerally difficult to control the aggregation of colloidal NP atconcentrations above threshold. Thus, the robustness and repeatabilityof SERS sensors based on this scheme is relatively low. In particular,it is difficult to quantify the analyte concentrations due to theuncontrollable aggregation.

The nanotip scheme (FIG. 2B) is called tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy(TERS) because the plasmonic enhancement arises from the close “contact”of a tiny gold tip and the sample of interest. TERS, like atomic forcemicroscope, is an excellent imaging tool with nanometer spatialresolution, but it is difficult to incorporate in sensors because onlyone tiny point is measured at a time. It is challenging to have thetarget analyte of interest right at the nanotip, particularly at lowanalyte concentration.

The nanostructured substrate scheme, on the other hand, can potentiallyprovide better repeatability and robustness for sensor applicationsbecause of its well-defined nanostructures. However, the enhancementonly occurs right on top of the nanostructured surface. In other words,for molecules to be plasmonically enhanced, they cannot be more than afew nanometers farther away from the substrate. Therefore, moststate-of-the-art SERS sensors rely on chemically or biochemicallyfunctionalized surfaces to improve the analyte-nanostructure affinity,as well as to gain selectivity. Nevertheless, reliable and consistentways to fabricate high-density, large-area nanostructured substrate arestill an active research pursuit. FIG. 2C shows representative SERSsubstrates developed in Prof. van Duyne's group at NorthwesternUniversity. Based on nanosphere lithography (NSL), triangular metalislands (left) can be formed with the polystyrene nanospheres removed.Alternatively, a thicker metal overcoat can cover the polystyrenenanospheres and create a hilly sensing surface (right). SERS enhancementfactor ˜10⁶⁻⁷ has been reported from this type of substrate.

Nanostructured substrates have been made by lithographic methodsincluding electron-beam, optical, nanoimprint, interference, andhybrids. SERS substrates are also made by randomly etched surface orself-assembled nanoparticles such as Ag-decorated anodized alumina,Ag-coated porous silicon, immobilized Au or Ag nanoparticle and nanorodarrays (FIGS. 3(A-D)).

We can quantify the 3-dimensional property of a SERS substrate using theeffective surface area-to-projected surface area ratio (ESA/PSA). Formost planar SERS substrates, this ratio is close to 1. The ratio isbetween 2 and 10 for substrates that feature more significant surfacetopography such as the immobilized nanoparticle substrate in FIG. 3Cwith a ratio ˜3; the nanorod substrate in FIG. 3D with a ratio ˜10.

We have been developing novel low-cost SERS substrates over the past 2years. As an example, FIG. 4A shows the scanning electron micrograph(SEM) of a SERS substrate fabricated by physical vapor deposition,during which Au nanoparticles randomly seed on a silicon or glasssubstrate and form isolated nanoislands.

High-resolution SERS maps are generated using the 1575 cm⁻¹ peak ofbenzenethiol self-assembled monolayer (SAM) over an area ˜100×100 μm²and several sites across each coverslip (FIG. 4B). Excellent uniformity(<±5%) has been observed with an enhancement factor ˜10⁷. A high-qualitySERS spectrum obtained from ˜10⁶ molecules (<10 atto moles) in 30 sec isshown in FIG. 4C).

Integration of micro/nanofluidics with SERS-based detection isattractive because SERS could allow label- and surfacefunctionalization-free, multiplexed sensing. In principle, any SERSsensing surface can be fabricated or placed inside a micro/nanofluidicchannel to achieve the basic level of integration. There are numerousexamples in the literature that utilize micro/nanofluidics mainly as asample delivery tool. Although the SERS sensor is “integrated” insidemicro/nanofluidics as, the potential synergy between the two has notbeen explored (FIGS. 5A-5C). To improve analyte delivery to the SERSsurface, shallow recesses have been fabricated in glass and PDMS polymerto create nanofluidics right on top of the SERS sensing surfaces (FIGS.5D-5E). Recently, a novel way to integrate nanofluidics with a SERSsensor has been proposed in. In their experiments, 60 nm colloidal goldnanoparticles are first accumulated by geometrical constraints inside amicrofluidic channel (FIG. 5F). The analytes are then flowed through thegap space between the nanoparticles. They have demonstrated thedetection of trace amount of β-amyloid, a potential biomarker for theAlzheimer's disease. As shown in FIG. 5F, the effective detection volumeis ˜200 nm in height, thereby suggests a ˜3-nanoparticle stack. Thusmost of the vertical real estate in the nanofluidic channel is occupiedby solid gold. From the above examples, we conclude that an effectiveway of fabricate plasmonic nanofluidics remain an elusive target.

Although a highly-focused laser spot is capable of trappingmicroparticles in the far-field, the gradient-based trapping mechanismbecomes ineffective when the particles become smaller and enter into theso-called Rayleigh particle range. Although far-field trapping of sub-50nm Au nanoparticles has been demonstrated, the required laser power islarge to overcome the Brownian motion. Plasmonic trapping, on the otherhand, can overcome these difficulties due to the ability to localize andenhance light in the near-field. Plasmonic trapping has beendemonstrated as a promising technique using thin metal films, metalpatches, sharp metal tips, and gap antennas. However, plasmonic trappingof molecules is still a challenge using existing nanostructureconfigurations. We envision the synergy between nanofluidic confinementand plasmonic trapping can achieve stable molecular trapping.

Recently, nanoporous gold (NPG) has drawn significant attention for itsexcellent performance in selective oxidation at low temperature. Theenhanced low-temperature performance is attributed to the ultra-highsurface area (˜10-50×) of NPG compared to flat surfaces. Takingadvantage of large surface area is not a new idea; however,non-monolithic techniques rely on random decoration of ˜5 nm goldnanoparticles on a support substrate and suffer from nanoparticlesintering at elevated temperature, thus degrading the performance andthe useful life-time of gold catalyst. In addition, it is challenging tobuild a truly 3-dimensional nanoporous network using layered assembly oftiny Au nanoparticles. On the contrary, NPG features a continuous porousthin film without the need of a support substrate, thereby increasinglong-term stability. In addition to catalysis, the large surface area ofNPG has been used in low contact impedance microelectrodes.

More recently, the plasmonic aspect of NPG has begun to be explored. Theplasmon resonance peak determined by absorption spectroscopy has beencharacterized with respect to pore size and density with results shownin FIGS. 6A-6B. As-fabricated NPG and mechanically wrinkled or densifiedNPG thin films have been demonstrated to be SERS active (FIGS. 6C-6D).From the fabrication standpoint, the starting NPG films in these resultshave been obtained from repetitive hammering and folding of white gold(Au/Ag mixture) into a “leaf” or thin foils, which can etched in nitricacid and subsequently harvested, laying on top of supporting substratefor characterization or further processing. From the patterningstandpoint, the only known existing work that claims to have patternedNPG employs mechanical stamping to compress and densify NPG thin filmsinto alternating submicron domains as shown in FIG. 6D. This patterningtechnique does not create isolated sub-micron NPG domain. Rather, theNPG thin film is still in one piece. One order of magnitude increases inthe SERS enhancement factor was observed from the patterned NPG. Thiswas attributed primarily to grating coupling as a result of thetile-like pattern.

Plasmonic nanostructures can enhance and spatially localize the electricfield in an area much smaller than the diffraction limit. As aconsequence, plasmonic nanostructures can generate much larger fieldgradients than that of far-field trapping at the same illuminationintensity. The pervasive plasmonic field inside the NPG or NPGD'sinternal nanofluidic channels can potentially provide 3-dimensionaltrapping capability, but exactly how is not well understood. When amolecule enters the nanoporous network (˜5-15 nm wide “tunnel”), it isphysically confined inside the nanopores and immersed in the plasmonicfield. Thus it is quite possible that a trapping effect similar to thegap antennas could occur with even higher trapping efficiency. Thetrapping of molecular analytes can be monitored by SERS, and is theapproach we take to study trapping dynamics under various operatingconditions.

The basic principle behind optical trapping is the momentum transferassociated with the scattering of light by a particle. Indeed, lightcarries momentum, hence when an object scatters light, changing thelight propagation direction, momentum conservation requires that theobject must undergo an equal and opposite momentum change. This givesrise to a force acting on the object.

To better understand the plasmonic field distribution, numerical modelsmay be built in, for example, Rsoft and simulated using the finitedifference time domain (FDTD) method.

In the FDTD framework, the Maxwell's equations are solved iteratively atsmall time increments. We will compute the electric field distributioninside the nanoporous network and then calculate the gradient force andthe scattering and absorption-induced force under plasmon resonance andoff-resonance. These forces may be integrated into an equation of motionfor local molecules. A preliminary model of Au disk (diameter: 100 nm;thickness: 75 nm) with random through-holes is shown in FIGS. 7A-7B.

We disclose fabricating NPG and NPGD on silicon substrates. Using eithergold or chromium as adhesion layers, the alloy thin film can bedeposited to the desired thickness by sputtering of an Au:Ag alloytarget using a commercial magnetron source. A magnetic virtual anode isused to prevent electron bombardment of the growing film. To produce NPGthin films, the as-deposited alloy film will be dip etched in nitricacid for a few seconds and then rinsed in deionized water and dried withnitrogen. The porosity may be tuned by using different Au:Ag ratios,optimized nitric acid concentrations and etching time.

To fabricate NPGD, spin coating of polystyrene (PS) beads may be used toform a uniform monolayer, similar to the procedure in nanospherelithography (NSL). NPGD diameter can be controlled by selecting PS beadsof different sizes. The PS bead monolayer can be eroded in oxygen plasmato produce the desire spacing and for additional NPGD diameter andspacing control. The sample may then be sputter etched to produceisolated NPGD. The PS beads will then be removed by solvent andsonication. A detailed fabrication process flow is shown in FIGS. 8A-8C.

After fabricating the NPG or NPGD plasmonic nanofluidics, it may beintegrated within a microfluidic enclosure for facile sample deliveryand experimentation. As shown in FIG. 8D, standard soft lithographymethod may be employed to fabricate a microfluidic enclosure usingpolydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The height of the PDMS “rooftop” may be˜1-5 μm depending on the photoresist thickness used in the softlithography process. The exact height is not critical because we are notrelying on the PDMS enclosure to create nanofluidics, but to improve theefficiency of sample delivery to the sensor surface.

We may use a home-made microscope to map the LSPR extinction spectra onNPG and NPGD of various pore size, pore density, thickness and diameter.A home-built line-scan confocal Raman microscope may be used tosimultaneously acquire SERS image from an area of 130 μm2 with 700 nmspatial resolution, enough to resolve individual NPGDs. To assess SERSactivities, we may use benzenethiol which forms self-assembled monolayeron gold surface via the Au—S bond. Following published protocols, we mayincubate the sample in 5 mM benzenethiol dissolved in ethanol for 30minutes, followed by a pure ethanol rinse for 1 minute and nitrogen dry.

We may test benzenethiol in flow-through experiments, comparing sampleswith continuous laser illumination to those only illuminatedintermittently during SERS acquisitions. Non-thiolated dye moleculessuch as Rhodamine 6G may then be used as the SERS marker. Time-lapseflow-through experiments may be performed with variable laser intensityto study plasmonic trapping. In these experiments, we expect to see theSERS intensity increases faster in samples with continuous laserillumination, compared to those where the laser is on only to acquirethe SERS spectrum. The effectiveness of plasmonic trapping will thus beassessed. We may optimize the trapping efficiency by experimenting withNPG/NPGD design and laser power.

We may then study whether the molecular analytes can be released fromthe plasmonic nanofluidics by reducing the laser illumination duty cycleand increasing the flow rate. A gradual decrease in SERS would suggestthe analytes are released from the plasmonic nanofluidics.

Finally, we may study the effect of combined effect of plasmonictrapping and nanofluidic confinement with different analytes by usingmolecules with different size and configurations under variable laserillumination duty cycle and flow rate. Next, multiple analytes may besimultaneously injected and test whether multiplexed trapping, sensingand release can be achieved.

We have rapidly progressed toward the proposed goals. We have startedthe FDTD model and simulation. A repeatable NPG fabrication process hasbeen established. Using drop-coating of PS beads, we have obtained NPGDwith consistent SERS. Larger-area SERS maps have been obtained fromdifferent samples using the home-built confocal Raman microscope.

Solid gold disks with similar external geometry and size are known to beplasmonic at NIR wavelengths. This is confirmed by our simulations asshown in FIGS. 9A-9B. Finite difference time domain (FDTD) was employedto calculate the electric field distribution near an Au (or Ag) diskwith diameter ˜180 nm and thickness ˜20 nm. Wavelength-scanned resultsshow that the plasmon resonance peak for Au and Ag are at 720 nm and 410nm, respectively. As a first step toward simulating NPGD, we simulated amodel with random through-holes in Au disks of different sizes(diameter: 100-200 nm; thickness: 30-75 nm; ten through-holes: 10 nm).Results shown in FIG. 10 suggest that there is indeed strong plasmonicfield inside these nanoholes. We will further refine the model toincorporate random nanoporosity.

We have fabricated continuous NPG thin films using free corrosion asoutlined in this disclosure. FIGS. 11A-11B show the ultra-finenanoporous network throughout 300 nm thick NPG films. Pores as small as5-7 nm are observed.

We have fabricated NPGDs using 500 nm PS beads as etch masks, asdescribed in this disclosure. Here the PS beads are drop-coated on thealloy sample as a proof-of-concept demonstration. FIG. 12A shows theNPGDs after etching with the PS bead etch mask still in place. FIG. 12Bshows isolated as well as clustered NPGDs with diameter ˜500 nm, provingthat the PS beads are effective etch mask.

The line-scan confocal Raman microscope has been used to characterizeNPG and NPGD over large areas. For the benzenethiol self-assembledmonolayer, the normalized CCD count is 3.6×10⁵/(sec-mW-μm²) from NPGD asshown in FIG. 13A. Since the surface area of this particular NPGD sampleis estimated ˜10 times larger than its projected area, these photons arecontributed by ˜68 million molecules (benzenethiol on Au saturationsurface density=6.8×1014/cm²), or equivalently ˜100 atto mole. Based onthe signal-to-noise ratio ˜400, the current detection limit is ˜170thousand molecules, or equivalently ˜300 zepto mole. Comparison of NPGD,NPG and 130 nm Au nanoshells on SiO₂ has been made with results shown inFIG. 13A. The normalized SERS for NPGD is 5× of that from nanoshells and100× of that from NPG thin films. We have also obtained SERS from otherthiolated ligands as shown in FIG. 13B.

We have mapped different NPGD samples composed of isolated disks as wellas densely populated monolayer clusters with results shown in FIGS. 14Athrough 14F. We have obtained perfect image registration between thebright-field white light channel and the Raman channel. The Raman mapsare generated using the benzenethiol peak at ˜1575 cm⁻¹.

When a molecule of interest is near a nanostructured surface of a noblemetal such as gold or silver, the localized surface plasmon resonanceeffect can boost the Raman scattering by many orders of magnitude.Because the LSPR is a near-field phenomenon and decays rapidly withincreased separation distance between the molecule and thenanostructure, the SERS signal primarily arises from the moleculesresiding within a few nanometers of the nanostructured surface.Therefore, it is advantageous for a SERS substrate to have a largesurface-to-volume ratio from the standpoint of optical samplingefficiency. Ideally, the detection sensitivity can be enhanced if allthe molecules reside in the so-called SERS hot spots, in which plasmoniccoupling between adjacent nanostructures introduces further enhancement.However, it is challenging to accurately fabricate high-density SERS hotspots, let alone to accurately place molecules at these hot spots.

NPGD not only provides a high surface-to-volume ratio currently notachievable by other nanostructures or nanoparticles, but also synergizesthe external shape and internal nanoporous network for excellent SERSactivity at 785 nm laser excitation. The size of the NPGD is designed tobe around a tightly focused laser spot (˜500 nm) to enable highlyefficient SERS collection.

Nanoporous gold thin films have recently captured intense attention fortheir high surface area. NPG films (˜500 microns thick) have been usedas an effective catalyst in low temperature oxidation. NPG thin filmshave been recognized as a plasmonic material and the LSPR exhibitsred-shift to ˜600 nm depending on the pore size. It has beendemonstrated that the SERS enhancement factor increases from 10⁶ to10⁸⁻⁹ after wrinkling the underlying substrate of a 100 nm thick NPGfilm. It has also been demonstrated that the EF changes from ˜10⁵ to 10⁷after mechanical stamping and densification of a continuous NPG thinfilm into a 2-dimensional grating. In both cases, the NPG films wereharvested after free corrosion and then placed on a substrate forfurther processing. The observed EF improvement has been attributed tothe formation of hot spots and/or grating coupling effects. Instead ofmechanical wrinkling or compacting the NPG thin films, we took adifferent route by patterning NPG thin films into discrete disks with˜500 nm diameters. Based on results in the literature and our ownsimulations, solid-core gold disks have a red-shifted plasmon resonancein the 700 nm range. Thus, we expected the combined effect of externaldisk shape and the internal nanoporous network would result in asynergic increase in the SERS enhancement factor.

The NPGD fabrication process is shown in FIGS. 8A through 8C and alsodiscussed above. First, a 300 nm thick gold layer is deposited on asilicon wafer followed by a 75 nm Au/Ag alloy film. Next, 500 nmpolystyrene beads are drop-coated onto the alloy film, followed byRF-sputter etching using the PS beads as etch mask. The PS spheres arethen removed by a combination of solvent and sonication. Finally, freecorrosion using 70% nitric acid is employed to leech the silver with 1sec dip followed by deionized water rinse and nitrogen dry.

The gold and gold/silver alloy films were deposited by DC-magnetronsputtering using a 25 mm magnetron source. The gold film was depositedusing 99.99% pure gold target. The composition ratio of the Au/Ag targetwas 28:72.

The Ar sputtering pressure and power were 5 mTorr and 50 W. A magneticvirtual anode, adapted from the cylindrical magnetron, was used toprevent electron bombardment of the growing film. The deposition ratesfor the gold and the alloy films were 37.5 nm/min and 25 nm/min,respectively. Sputtering etching was carried out in a homemade reactorwith a 150 mm cathode using 99.999% pure argon gas. The power densityand argon gas pressure were 0.057 W/cm2 and 2 mTorr. Etch rate of thealloy film was calibrated by scanning electron microscopy to be ˜30nm/min. The etching stops when the entire alloy film not covered by PSspheres is etched away and about ˜65 nm of the base gold layer isremoved to obtain completely isolated alloy disks sitting on a ˜65 nmthick solid gold base. The remaining gold in the etched region is about235 nm thick.

FIG. 15A shows a scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of the PS beadresidues covering an etched alloy and gold film stack to confirm thethickness and the effectiveness of PS beads as the etch mask. Theboundary between the alloy and gold base is visible in FIG. 15B. The topsurface of NPGD is revealed after the removal of the PS beads and nitricacid corrosion as shown in FIG. 15C. Here we can observe the ultra-finenanoporous network similar to that obtained from unpatterned NPG thinfilms (FIG. 15D) fabricated by the same free-corrosion procedure.

Benzenethiol was selected to be the SERS marker for its ability to forma self-assembled monolayer (SAM) on gold via the Au—S bond. Briefly, weincubate the NPGD in 5 mM benzenethiol dissolved in ethanol for 30minutes, followed by pure ethanol rinse for 1 minute and nitrogen dry.The same procedure was used to coat BT SAM on the unpatterned 75 nmthick continuous NPG thin films and gold nanoshells.

To characterize the SERS activity, we have employed a home-built Ramanmicroscopy system with 785 nm excitation. This system allows us toperform rapid, high-resolution SERS mapping over 100×100 micron² regionsat various places on the substrate. We determine the absolute SERS EF bycomparing our SERS spectra to gold nanoshells, which are known to havean EF ˜10⁹ with 785 nm excitation.

To establish a baseline for comparison with results in the literature,we compare SERS from unpatterned NPG films, a single nanoshell and asingle NPGD with results shown in FIGS. 16A-16B. Our Raman system has alaser spot size ˜1 micron² matched to the collection optics and acorresponding power density ˜0.5 mW/micron². For the unpatterned NPG,the spectra is effectively collected from a 1 micron² area; for thesingle nanoshell ˜0.0133 micron²; for the NPGD ˜0.196 micron². FromFIGS. 16A-16B, we observe that the normalized 1575 cm⁻¹ peak intensity(counts/mW/sec micron²) of NPGD is ˜2.5 times of that from nanoshell,and is ˜100 times of that from unpatterned NPG. Since the nanoporousstructure and thickness are identical for the NPGD and unpatterned NPG,we can readily conclude that NPGD has an SERS EF ˜100 times higher thanunpatterned NPG.

Our NPGD have a pore size ˜7 nm, porosity ˜34%, thickness 75 nm,yielding a total surface area ˜10× larger than a flat surface with thesame projected area. For nanoshells, the surface area is 4× theprojected area. Thus, the surface area ratio of NPGD and nanoshell is˜2.5 given the same projected area. Since the normalized SERS from unitprojected area of NPGD is 2.5 times of that from nanoshells, NPGD EF is˜10⁹, given the EF of nanoshell is 10⁹. Thus, the unpatterned NPG has EF˜10⁷.

Given that the BT surface density on gold reported in the literature is6.8×10¹⁴/cm², the number of BT molecules on a single NPGD is ˜13million, or 22 attomoles. Since the signal-to-noise ratio for NPGD is˜400 in FIGS. 16A-16B, the detection limit on average is estimated to be˜32,500 BT molecules (SNR ˜1).

Next, we consider the large “capacity” that a NPGD provides. Based onprevious estimates, a single NPGD can “pack” 22 attomoles of BTmolecules inside a monolithic construct of volume ˜14.7 attoL, achievinga molecule-to-volume ratio of ˜1.5 mole/L. Comparing to nanoshells with130 nm diameter, the volume of a single NPGD would be occupied by ˜12.8nanoshells with 4.6 million BT molecules on the surface. Therefore, theNPGD has a molecule-to-volume ratio ˜3 times of that for nanoshellaggregates. However, the monolithic NPGD has well defined shape andreproducibility that is challenging to achieve by nanoshell aggregates.As shown in FIGS. 16A-16B, the BT molecules within a single NPGD (˜22atto moles) can be detected (SNR ˜1) by a CCD detector at 15° C. Thetotal laser power was 0.5 mW and the total integration time was 20 secby summing over twenty 1-sec CCD frames.

We now explore the physical basis of the high enhancement factor in NPGDby comparing unpatterned NPG thin films with patterned NPGD. Since thereis no modification to the nanoporous network from our patterningtechnique, the EF increase is entirely due to the disk formation. Aplausible explanation to the substantial EF increase is a red shift ofthe plasmonic resonance peak toward the laser excitation wavelength (785nm) by patterning into sub-micron disk. This is supported by knownred-shifted plasmonic resonance peak to ˜700 nm for solid gold disks.Next, we compare NPGD to a solid gold disk of similar external dimensionwhich has EF ˜10⁶. Thus, the EF increase cannot be accounted for by the˜10 times increase in surface area. These comparisons suggest plasmoniccoupling between the external disk shape and the internal nanoporousnetwork. It is plausible that there are already many potentialSERS-active sites at the kinks and corners inside the nanoporous networkof the unpatterned NPG thin films, however, are somewhat “dormant”.These sites are “activated” after the continuous film is patterned intodiscrete NPGDs.

Monolithic nanoporous gold disk is a highly effective SERS substrate.The SERS enhancement factor is comparable to gold nanoshells on the permolecule basis, however, about 3 times higher in the molecule-to-volumeratio. The larger capacity could enable more efficient packing ofmolecules into the 3rd dimension. We note that there has been no attemptto optimize the NPGD for 785 nm excitation, thus, higher EF could bepossible at other excitation wavelengths. The optimal excitationwavelength could be tailored for specific applications, e.g., furtherinto the near-infrared region, by various NPGD designs. These aspectswill be investigated in future studies. The proposed monolithic NPGD canbe fabricated with high reproducibility using the proof-of-conceptfabrication process we developed. This process can be easily modified togenerate regularly spaced NPGD over larger area. A simple modificationis to employ spin coating to form a compact PS beads monolayer as innanosphere lithography, followed by oxygen plasma erosion of the PSbeads to the desired size. We have demonstrated that the detection limitis ˜32,500/mW/sec/micron² BT molecules. We have shown that the BTmolecules attached to a single NPGD (˜22 atto moles) can be detectedusing a CCD detector at 15° C. Therefore, NPGD could enableultra-sensitive SERS sensor using uncooled CCD chips.

Another application of this disclosure relates to medicine. Photodynamictherapy (PDT) is a relatively mature technology where photosensitizersare excited by lasers or diodes to generate highly reactive singletoxygen, which causes cell death. However, clinical PDT faces severallimitations: principally, a lack of molecular targeting specificity,instead relying on the preferential accumulation of the photosensitizerin regions of vascular pathophysiology which only develops in the laterstages of a disease such as cancer. Moreover, PDT photosensitizers tendto have limited solubility in blood, poor transport in tissue, andlimited biocompatibility. To overcome these barriers, vesicle-basedliposomes or nanoparticles similar to those employed in drug deliveryhave been pursued with some success. It is, however, difficult tomonitor the accumulation of these vesicles in the body. Simultaneouslyoptimizing the relevant parameters such as payload volume, solubility,biocompatibility, and stability is still a challenge. In photothermaltherapy (PTT), cell death is caused by the hyperthermia condition due tolocalized heating of nanoparticles by electromagnetic radiation. Thefirst PTT agents were colloidal gold spheres heated by light at theplasmon resonance near 540 nm. Applications were limited however by thestrong scattering and absorption of skin, tissue, and hemoglobin at thiswavelength. As a result, nanoshells, nanorods and nanocages, where theresonance shifts into the NIR transmission window, were developed fortargets up to a few centimeters deep. The tremendous advantage of goldnanoparticles is the ability to coat, or functionalize, them withantibodies that bind only with specific antigens on the surface oftarget cells. (Such specificity has been challenging for vesicle-basedPDT). One goal of this disclosure is to create a synergy betweenphotodynamic and photothermal mechanisms where cell death results fromthe combined effects of local heating and the toxicity of photogeneratedsinglet oxygen. The implementation involves our innovation in nanoporousgold nanodisks, one of which is shown in FIG. 17A, which could be sealedwith a standard self-assembled or a heat-sensitive polymeric overcoat,to carry a photosensitizer to the targeted cells with molecularspecificity achieved by the antibody-antigen reaction discussed abovefor gold nanoparticles. Their accumulation can be easily monitored bysurface-enhanced Raman imaging. Once the unbound NPGNs clear the body,NIR illumination will open the seal on the bound particles by plasmonicheating, releasing the photosensitizer payload into the spacesurrounding the targeted cell. Since the diffusion length of singletoxygen is very short, less than a few micrometers, the efficiency ofgenerating a high concentration of singlet oxygen exactly where it isneeded can be very high compared with the less specific floodingapproach of conventional PDT. Moreover, since the NPGN is partiallytransparent, even the interior exhibits surface plasmon resonance,implying that SERS could be used to monitor photosensitizer release inreal-time. This would not be possible with nanosphere, nanoshell ornanocage carriers, since surface enhancement applies only to themolecules within a few nanometers of the gold surface. Once the payloadis released, optical power can be increased to heat the surroundingtissue and stimulate the creation of singlet oxygen, whose toxicitywould be enhanced at high temperature.

In summary, the synergy may include the following:

1. An increase in efficacy and a reduction in side effects due to anoverall reduction in the peak power densities required for the death oftargeted cells.

2. A dramatic improvement in the cellular specificity, biocompatibility,and targeted delivery of PDT.

3. Real-time monitoring of nanoparticle density and photosensitizerrelease in PTT.

Two specific aims of the project are:

1. To design NPGN for optimal plasmonic behavior.

2. Refine two wafer-scale NPGN fabrication methods using atom beam andnanosphere lithography.

3. Characterize the plasmonic heating and singlet oxygen generation ofNPGN in solvents, water, and bacterial cell cultures using a combinationof SERS, fluorescence and localized-surface-plasmonresonance spectralmicroscopy.

One NPGN design concept is to pattern nanoporous gold films (˜30-100 nmthick) into disks (˜60-500 nm in diameter) on a substrate for laterharvesting. Nanodisks with such geometry and size are known to beplasmonic in the NIR wavelength, which is confirmed by our simulation.However, there have been no studies on porous nanodisks. We willtherefore employ the finite-different-time-domain method to investigatethe plasmonic behavior of NPGN with various particle sizes, shapes, poresizes, and pore density.

The initial film consists of a 27:63=Au:Ag alloy deposited by sputteringa stoichiometric alloy target. We will develop two high-throughputtechniques to pattern the Au/Ag alloy film into NPGN using atom beamlithography (ABL) and nanosphere lithography (NSL), both of which arecapable of wafer scale fabrication. In ABL, a plasma-depositednegative-tone resist is patterned into nanoislands, 60-500 nm indiameter by neutral helium atom exposure through a stencil mask. Theresist pattern is transferred to the Au/Ag alloy by sputter etching. Theresist is removed in an oxygen plasma. NPGNs are then formed by leachingthe silver in nitric acid. NPGNs are released from silicon substratesduring the leaching.

We have studied the plasmonic behavior of non-porous gold and silvernanodisks using the finite-difference-time-domain method. FIG. 18A showsthe enhanced electrical

field at the circumference of a gold nanodisk (d ˜180 nm; t ˜20 nm).FIG. 18B shows the extinction spectra of the nanodisks made of gold orsilver. Plasmon resonance is identified at ˜420 nm for silver, while˜750 nm for gold. The simulations have been done for solid nanodisks. Ared-shifted plasmonic peak to ˜650 nm has been observed in continuousnanoporous gold thin film [15]. Therefore, it is our expectation thatthe proposed NPGN will have more red-shift than either solid goldnanodisk or continuous nanoporous gold film. This is important since itmoves the resonance further into the NIR transmission window.

FIG. 19A shows a 300 nm-thick NPG film with highly uniform 5-10 nm poresthroughout its volume. FIG. 19B shows NPGN islands fabricated by sputteretching using NSL. It is observed that the NPGN's diameter is very closeto that of the 500 nm masking polystyrene nanospheres. Cracks are formedin these NPGN due to the good adhesion to the substrate via a continuousAu layer underneath. The cracking issue has been resolved bysimultaneous Ag leaching and releasing as shown in FIGS. 17A-17C. Toprove the concept, the polystyrene nanospheres were drop-coated withoutforming a compact layer. Spin coating and oxygen plasma erosiontechniques will be employed in the future to produce compact nanospheremask for high-throughput fabrication. ABL will be pursued for NPGN witharbitrary shapes.

We have successfully obtained benzenethiol self-assembled monolayer SERSmap from un-released NPGNs (area 133×100 μm²) as shown in FIG. 20A. Thehigh quality SERS spectrum in FIG. 20B (from 1 μm² area, 0.2 mW/μm², 1sec) has signal level ˜10⁵ higher than that from typical non-poroussubstrates with known enhancement factor 5*10⁵, as well as publishednanoporous Au results, suggesting our NPGN has either ultra-highenhancement factor or volumetric effect or the combination of both. Thiscould be the evidence that benzenethiol SAM coated inside the NPGN'sporous network contributes to the SERS signal since NPGN issemi-transparent within the thickness range. This hypothesis may betested by measuring benzenethiol SERS from NPGN with differentthickness. If proven true, we would be able monitor the release ofinternal adsorbates, i.e., photosensitizers. For the alternativeapproach using ABL, the requisite resist patterns as shown in FIG. 20Chave been fabricated.

A suitable microscope is needed to perform dark/bright field imaging forNPGN tracking, fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy for monitoringvarious molecules. Starting with a commercial inverted microscope(Olympus IX-71 with dark/bright field and fluorescence capabilities), wehave developed a high-throughput Raman microscope based online-scanning. This instrument can achieve ˜100× throughput enhancementcompared to a commercial point-scan system. It was employed to generatethe map in FIG. 20A in 100 sec. Since the NPGN could be moving in thewet or cell culture experiments, we have developed another novelinstrument which enables SERS-based particle tracking for ˜30nanoparticles simultaneously. FIG. 21A shows the SERS spectral imagefrom 20 nanoparticles coated with benzenethiol.

NPGN Modeling and Simulation:

Solid gold nanodisks with similar external geometry and size are knownto be plasmonic in the NIR wavelength, which is confirmed by oursimulation. However, there have been no studies on NPGN. We thereforeemploy the finite-different-time-domain method to investigate theplasmonic behavior of NPGN with various NPGN sizes, shapes, pore sizes,and pore density.

NPGN Fabrication:

We disclose two high-throughput techniques to pattern the Au/Ag alloyfilm into NPGN using atom beam lithography and nanosphere lithography,both of which are capable of wafer scale fabrication. In ABL, aplasma-deposited negative-tone resist is patterned into islands, ˜30-500nm in diameter by neutral helium atom exposure through a stencil mask.The resist pattern is transferred to the Au/Ag alloy by sputter etching.The resist is removed in an oxygen plasma. NPGNs are then formed byleaching the silver in nitric acid.

The NSL approach differs from ABL in the formation of a compactmonolayer of polystyrene nanospheres by spin coating onto the Au/Agalloy film. The nanospheres are eroded by oxygen plasma to the desireddiameter and then serve as the etching mask, similar to the role of thepatterned photoresist in the ABL approach. Although NSL can only patternround NPGN, ABL permits arbitrary shapes by mask design. The releasedNPGN may be harvested using a polycarbonate (PCTE) nanofiltration (NF)membrane. The fabrication throughput will be about ˜10¹⁰⁻¹² NPGNs per 4″wafer (wafers can be recycled), adequate for proof-of-concept tests inthis pilot project and further pre-clinical tests in cells and smallanimals.

NPGN Characterization:

SEM, DFM and LSPR microscopy may be performed over a population of NPGNbefore releasing from the substrate. The NPGN will be coated withbenzenethiol SAM as SERS marker. A home-built line-scan confocal Ramanmicroscope will be employed to generate a SERS map over a large area(˜100×100 micron²) that covers many isolated NPGN as well as clusters.

NPGN Tracking, Monitoring, and Heating:

We disclose a SERS tracking system by splitting a collimated laser beaminto many groups of tiny spots using a spatial light modulator (SLM). ACCD camera is used to record SERS from all spots simultaneously. Asshown in FIG. 22A, we start with a random search by flashing random spotpatterns over the cell to locate the initial locations of all NPGN(currently we can achieve approximately 50 spots at a time). Thenseveral sub-groups of spots will be allocated, each sub-group for anindividual NPGN, to continuously monitor and update as “motion sensors”(MS) as shown in FIG. 22B from real data, similar to a 7-element motionsensor. The exact pattern may be optimized. An example MS configurationis shown in FIG. 22C and experimentally scanned across a 100 nmnanoshell. FIG. 22D shows the 3-channel SERS signals obtained from spotsin the center row of this MS, suggesting a tracking accuracy ˜1 micron.We can quantify single nanoshell versus dimer purely based on SERSintensity as shown in FIG. 22D. SERS-based tracking is potentially moresensitive than dark-field microscopy and requires only 1 detector. Weexpect to push the temporal resolution down to 1 ms using anelectron-multiplied CCD.

The feedback SERS tracking scheme may be implemented using graphicprocessing unit (GPU) for example in the CUDA (Compute Unified DeviceArchitecture) framework, since it facilitates a C-like developmentenvironment with automatic thread management. Using a consumer grade GPU(NVIDIA GeForce GTX 285), Persson has demonstrated 10 ms SLM frameupdates for generating multiple holographic optical traps.

Nanoplasmonic Simulation:

FIG. 18A shows the electrical field at the circumference of a goldnanodisk (d ˜180 nm; t ˜20 nm). FIG. 18B shows the extinction spectra ofthe nanodisks made of gold or silver. Plasmon resonance is identified at˜420 nm for silver, and ˜750 nm for gold. We may simulate NPGN withvarious external sizes, pore size and density.

NPGN Fabrication:

FIG. 18C shows a 300 nm-thick NPG film with highly uniform 5-10 nm poresthroughout its volume. FIG. 18D shows NPGN islands after NSL andetching. It is observed that the NPGN's diameter is very close to thatof the 500 nm masking polystyrene nanospheres. Cracks are formed inthese NPGN due to the good adhesion to the substrate via a continuous Aulayer underneath. The cracking issue has been resolved by simultaneousAg leaching and releasing as shown in FIGS. 17A-17C. To prove theconcept, the polystyrene nanospheres were drop-coated without forming acompact layer. Spin coating and oxygen plasma erosion techniques will beemployed in the future to produce compact nanosphere mask forhigh-throughput fabrication. ABL may be used for NPGN with arbitraryshapes. For the alternative approach using ABL, our collaborator (JWolfe) has successfully fabricated the requisite resist patterns assmall as 60 nm diameter (FIG. 23A) over 1 in².

NPGN SERS Mapping:

We have successfully obtained benzenethiol self-assembled monolayer SERSmap from un-released NPGN (area 25×25 micron²) as shown in FIG. 18E. Thehigh quality SERS spectrum in FIG. 1D (from 1 micron² area, 0.2mW/micron², 10 sec) has signal level ˜10⁵ higher than that from typicalnon-porous substrates with known enhancement factor 5*10⁵, as well aspublished nanoporous Au results, suggesting our NPGN has an enhancementfactor ˜10¹⁰. We will measure benzenethiol SERS from NPGN with differentthickness to study the thickness-dependent SERS.

NPGN Tracking:

FIG. 23B shows the 11-dot monitoring of gold nanoshells simultaneouslywith the nanoshell coated with benzenethiol SAM. FIG. 23C showssimultaneous 50-point Raman acquisition from a silicon wafer.

NPGN as an Ultra-Sensitive Molecular Sensor With Uncooled Detector:

Although SERS is highly sensitive, it requires a cooled detector invirtually all current applications. The primary reason for that is thenanostructure only has a very limited surface area for molecule ofinterest to attach. Due to the ultra-high surface-to-volume ratio andthe strong nanoplasmonic effect, NPGN can be an ultra-sensitivemolecular sensor with uncooled detectors. Here, we have measuredbenzenethiol SAM coated NPGN at 15, 10, 5 and 0° C. detector temperaturewith signal-to-noise ratio 26.5, 8.5, 5.89, and 3.9, respectively. Weexpect SNR ˜1 at 30° C. The SERS signal is collected from ˜4 NPGN unitswith a total number of molecule ˜100 million (or 100 atto mole). Thelaser intensity is 10 mW/micron² and the total spectral acquisition timeis 20 sec. Spectra are shown in FIGS. 16A-16B. NPGN could enableultra-light weight portable SERS meters because only a uncooled CCD chipand a laser pointer like laser is needed.

Multi-modal spectral microscopy may be performed over a population ofNPGN in ethanol, water and bacterial cell cultures. In ethanol, the NPGNwill be coated with benzenethiol SAM and then imaged under wet and dryconditions. For the dry experiment, a line-scan confocal Ramanmicroscope will be employed to generate a SERS map over a large area(˜100×100 μm2). In the wet experiment, a 3D multi-point SERSnanoparticle tracking system recently developed will be used. Thesemeasurements will allow us to identify the wavelength of surface plasmonresonance and obtain the NPGN SERS brightness. In the water and cellculture experiments, the NPGN will be infused with photosensitizerindocyanine green (ICG) and subsequently protected bythiol-polyethyleneglycol (T-PEG) to prevent NPGN aggregation. Theline-scan and 3D tracking systems mentioned earlier will be employed toassess the SERS-based imaging capability of NPGN. The NPGNs are notexpected to be internalized by the bacterial cells. Next, we will assessthe photothermal effect of NPGN by using an external NIR source forheating. Photothermal effects will be assessed by the NPGN SERS and theintensity of infused ICG fluorescence simultaneously. We expect toobserve ICG SERS only from the NPGN due to its plasmonic enhancement,whereas, we could observe ICG fluorescence from the NPGN depending onthe degree of plasmonic fluorescence quenching. In contrast, thereleased ICG can be quantified by observing a negative correlationbetween ICG fluorescence from the external microenvironment of the NPGNand the ICG SERS from the NPGN. Localized heating will also be assessedusing thermally sensitive dyes, such as Leuco, and by direct measurementusing a thermal couple probe on the sample. Once the ICG release exceedsa threshold, photodynamic effects will be assessed by a singlet oxygenfluorescence marker (e.g. Sensor Green, ex/ex ˜504/525 nm, Invitrogen)using a separate excitation/emission channel of the microscope.

Those with ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the disclosedembodiments have relevance to a wide variety of areas in addition tothose specific examples described above.

The foregoing description of the exemplary embodiments is provided toenable any person skilled in the art to make and use the claimed subjectmatter. Various modifications to these embodiments will be readilyapparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles definedherein may be applied to other embodiments without the use of theinnovative faculty. Thus, the claimed subject matter is not intended tobe limited to the embodiments shown herein but is to be accorded thewidest scope consistent with the principles and novel features disclosedherein.

It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, andadvantages that are included within this description be within the scopeof the claims.

1-3. (canceled)
 4. A method for forming nanoporous gold structures, themethod comprising the steps of: depositing an alloy film comprising goldand at least one other metal on a substrate; and etching the alloy film,thereby removing at least a portion of said at least one other metal toform a nanoporous gold structure.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein thestep of depositing the alloy film comprises sputtering the alloy film onthe substrate using a magnetron source.
 6. The method of claim 5,further comprising using a magnetic virtual anode to prevent electronbombardment of the alloy film.
 7. The method of claim 4, wherein thestep of depositing the alloy film comprises depositing the alloy film onan adhesion layer disposed in association with the substrate.
 8. Themethod of claim 7, wherein the adhesion layer comprises gold, chromium,or combinations thereof.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the substratecomprises silicon.
 10. The method of claim 4, wherein said at least oneother metal comprises silver.
 11. The method of claim 4, wherein thestep of etching the alloy film comprises exposing the alloy film to anacid for a selected period of time.
 12. The method of claim 11, furthercomprising the step of selecting a ratio of gold to said at least oneother metal in the alloy film, selecting a concentration of the acid,selecting the selected period of time for the step of etching, orcombinations thereof, to control a porosity of the nanoporous goldstructure.
 13. The method of claim 4, further comprising the step ofapplying a mask to the alloy film to prevent etching of at least aportion of the alloy film, such that etching the alloy film forms ananoporous gold structure comprising a plurality of nanoporous golddiscs.
 14. The method of claim 13, comprising at least partially erodingthe mask to control a spacing between the plurality of nanoporous golddiscs.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the step of at leastpartially eroding the mask comprises exposing the mask to oxygen plasma.16. The method of claim 14, wherein the step of applying the maskcomprises using atom beam lithography to deposit material through astencil on to the alloy film.
 17. The method of claim 14, wherein thestep of applying the mask comprises coating said at least a portion ofthe alloy film with a layer of polystyrene beads.
 18. The method ofclaim 13, further comprising the steps of providing a molecular analyteinto pores of at least one of the nanoporous gold discs, transportingthe molecular analyte to a targeted cell, and releasing the molecularanalyte from said at least one of the nanoporous gold discs.
 19. Themethod of claim 18, further comprising the steps of sonicating said atleast one of the nanoporous gold discs in water; and harvesting said atleast one of the nanoporous gold discs via centrifugation to form atleast one colloidal nanpoprous gold disc adapted to deliver molecularanalytes to said targeted cell.
 20. The method of claim 4, furthercomprising providing, receiving, or combinations thereof, a substanceinto pores of the nanoporous gold structure; projecting light at leastpartially through the nanoporous gold structure to contact thesubstance; and measuring the light to record at least one qualityassociated with the substance.
 21. A method for forming nanoporous golddiscs, the method comprising the steps of: depositing an alloy filmcomprising gold and at least one other metal on an adhesion layerdisposed in association with a substrate; applying a mask in associationwith the alloy film; and etching a first portion of the alloy film toremove at least a portion of said at least one metal therefrom, whereinthe mask covers a second portion of the alloy film, to form a pluralityof nanoporous gold discs.
 22. The method of claim 21, further comprisingthe step of at least partially eroding the mask to control a spacingbetween the plurality of nanoporous gold discs.
 23. The method of claim22, wherein the step of applying the mask comprises wherein the step ofapplying the mask comprises using atom beam lithography to depositmaterial on to the alloy film.
 24. The method of claim 21, wherein thestep of applying the mask comprises coating said at least a portion ofthe alloy film with a layer of polystyrene beads.
 25. The method ofclaim 21, wherein the step of etching the first portion of the alloyfilm comprises exposing the alloy film to acid until substantially allof said at least one other metal in the first portion of the alloy filmand a portion of the adhesion layer is etched away.
 26. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the portion of the adhesion layer comprises athickness of approximately 65 nanometers.
 27. The method of claim 21,further comprising the steps of providing a molecular analyte into poresof at least one of the nanoporous gold discs, transporting the molecularanalyte to a targeted cell, and releasing the molecular analyte fromsaid at least one of the nanoporous gold discs.
 28. The method of claim27, further comprising the steps of sonicating said at least one of thenanoporous gold discs in water; and harvesting said at least one of thenanoporous gold discs via centrifugation to form at least one colloidalnonporous gold disc adapted to deliver molecular analytes to saidtargeted cell.
 29. The method of claim 21, further comprising providing,receiving, or combinations thereof, a substance into pores of at leastone of the nanoporous gold discs; projecting light at least partiallythrough said at least one of the nanoporous gold discs to contact thesubstance; and measuring the light to record at least one qualityassociated with the substance.